Liquid Water on Mars

Figure 1: The Slope Lineae

There have been many discoveries in this past year of 2015, but perhaps one of the most significant of all was the discovery of liquid water on Mars. A phenomenon called the ‘recurring slope lineae’ (shown in figure 1) was being inspected when liquid water was found. The recurring slope lineae are small lines that appear and disappear depending on the seasons on Mars. This odd occurrence spurred scientists to dig deeper and deeper into the phenomenon, eventually striking “space gold”--briny, liquid water. The slope lineae were confirmed by the Mars Reconnaissance (figure 2), a spacecraft that is meant to explore Mars from its orbit. Even though liquid water is an incredible breakthrough, it may not provide as much proof of extra-terrestrial life that some were hoping for. As CNN reporter Michael Pearson says in this article, “The discovery doesn't by itself offer evidence of life on Mars, either past or present, it does boost hopes that the harsh landscape still offers some refuge for microbes…”. 

Figure 2: The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

Though it does not provide definitive proof of extraterrestrials, the implications of this discovery are out of this world. When technology progresses further and further into the future, scientists may find more liquid water on other planets, which could serve to find microbial aliens or even intelligent life somewhere else in the solar system. Sticking to the planet of Mars itself, this could be just the first in a mass of evidence pointing to past (and possible present) life on Mars, however small or unintelligent it may be. Though I, personally, do not believe in a pop-culture style alien (such as this), I think non-human (or at least non-Earth) life could come in the form of bacteria or microbes. Water, especially in liquid form, is a haven for small, unintelligent lifeforms and may prove as a breeding ground for something far more advanced in the distant future. Looking to the future, if any life is able to thrive off of or within the salty water on Mars, it will be discovered in 2020, when NASA is sending a rover to the red planet to collect and analyze the liquid on the planet. 

 Bibliography: 

Pearson, Michael. "Liquid Water Exists on Mars, Boosting Hopes for Life There, NASA Says." Cnn.com. CNN, 29 Sept. 2015. Web. 13 Jan. 2016.

Redd, Nola Taylor. "Water on Mars: Exploration & Evidence." Space.com. Purch, 7 Oct. 2015. Web. 13 Jan. 2016.

Wall, Mike. "The Martian" and Reality: How NASA Will Get Astronauts to Mars." Space.com. Purch, 02 Oct. 2015. Web. 14 Jan. 2016.

Wall, Mike. "Water on Mars Could Help Put Astronaut Boots on Red   Planet." Space.com. Purch, 29 Sept. 2015. Web. 13 Jan. 2016.

Witze, Alexandra. "Year in Review: Best Evidence Yet for Water on Mars." Science News. Society for Science & the Public, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 13 Jan. 2016.

Water on Mars

Water o Mars, is it true, or not? New findings of NASA are really incredible. The NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) has the strongest evidence so far, that there is water on the "red planet".

The NASA's astronaut and associate administrator, John Grunsfield, confirmed that there is water on Mars. “Our quest on Mars has been to ‘follow the water,’ in our search for life in the universe, and now we have convincing science that validates what we’ve long suspected,”, he said. The streak lines seen on Mars suggest that there is water on the planet. The NASA scientists' MRO noticed the hydrated salts that prove that liquid water flows on Mars. Before the discovery, it was thought that there is ancient frozen water, however there is an evidence now that the water flows on Mars intermittently.

The discovery of water on Mars is very important for science. The NASA scientists used a few spaceships and years to find out whether there is water on the "red planet". The main goal was to find resources on other planets in order to support life in the future.

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Bibliography:
https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-confirms-evidence-that-liquid-water-flows-on-today-s-mars

The Encaledus Ocean(s)

Long have humans searched for signs of extraterrestrial life in the cosmos. In the fifty years that we have spent scouring our solar system, only few evidences have been found which support the theory of little green men outside of our world. The most concrete finding which backs this is the discovery of a liquid water ocean on Enceladus, a small moon of Saturn, about 500 kilometers in diameter. This is because of many reasons, which I will explain in the following passages.

Enceladus is Saturn's 6th largest moon, and is about a tenth of the size of Titan, Saturn's largest moon. Enceladus was discovered in 1789 by William Herschel, who also discovered Uranus. Little was known about the icy moon until the Cassini spacecraft took close range photographs of the surface in 2005. Amazingly, the photographs revealed geysers and cryovolcanoes spewing water and ice hundreds of kilometers into the air, some even escaping out into space, contributing to the rings of Saturn. The jets of water also contained silica particles, which are created in hot temperatures. Firstly, scientists were baffled with these findings, however, they soon realized that there must be a liquid water ocean under the thick layer of ice which coats the moon. Tectonic activity and friction caused by gravitational pull heat up the core of the moon. Small vents much like the ones found on ocean floors on Earth are likely to exist on Enceladus. They hint at the fact that there is a source of heat within the celestial body, and that many of the same processes which occur on Earth are not isolated cases. This is particularly exciting to scientists and ET - hopefuls, as geological activity is the catalyst of life on Earth, and seeing it happen elsewhere in the solar system shows that the green men of our imaginations could well be reality. If creatures were to exist in the warm oceans of Enceladus, they would probably look like tube - worms, and simulate a hydrothermal vent ecosystem, as are seen on the bottoms of oceans on Earth.

All in all, the finding of the planet wide ocean on Enceladus, an icy moon, shows how life could possibly be sustained anywhere, no matter the limitations of the area. A true underdog story, that such a barren wasteland as pictured below is the greatest lead that we have to finding extraterrestrial life.

The icy world of Enceladus

Citations

"Enceladus - In Depth." NASA Solar System Exploration. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Jan. 2016.

http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-enceladus-global-ocean-water-cassini-nasa-20150916-story.html

Ebola Vaccine Now Available!

West Africa End 2015 Ebola Free

December 30th, 2015

By: Carol Pearson

Reviewed by: Ashley Kim

 The start of 2015 began hopefully in finding an effective Ebola vaccine and ended in glory. This article in the VOA (Voice of America) celebrated the success of the now safe and efficient Ebola vaccine, VSV-EBOV(see Fig1), as well as much rejoicing for the now Ebola-free countries: Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea! Although these countries weren't the only ones in Africa to be hit with this deadly virus, it was most serious in these regions.

Earlier in 2015, other articles, such as this one from the World Health Organization commented on  how the results from the Guinea Phase III efficiency trial for VSV-EBOV was shown to be decidedly effective. John-Arne Røttingen, Director of the Division Infectious Disease Control at the Norwegian Institute of Public Health and Chair of the Study Steering Group, explained that "... by vaccinating all people who have come into contact with an infected person you create a protective 'ring' and stop the virus

from spreading further. This strategy has helped us to follow the dispersed epidemic in Guinea, and will provide a way to continue this as a public health intervention in trial mode." VSV-EBOV was developed by the Public Health Agency of Canada and licensed to NewLink Genetics, Merck & Co. and the Canadian and US Governments financially supported a continuation of trials and research.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a vaccine is made of weakened or killed forms of the microbe that causes the disease. This weaker form triggers the immune to destroy and remember, so the next time the immune encounters this virus, there will be no trouble of fighting it.

Other vaccines, such as ChAd3-ZEBOV, NewLinkGenetics, and MerckVaccines USA are also being tested, as well as other treatments and devices.

However, back to the main article. Although Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea are Ebola free, Pearson agrees with Dr. Bruce Aylward, the WHO's special representative for Ebola, that "...the coming months would be 'absolutely critical.'" Meaning, future Ebola outbreaks must be prepared for and kept under control.

When the Ebola pandemic started two years ago, everyone was completely caught off guard and devastated. Around 11,000 people were taken away by Ebola across ten countries. Yet, here we are, two years later with a vaccine. All over the world, several countries took the time and effort to create this vaccine and are still trying to develop further effective treatments. The World Bank Group has also given $1.62 billion to help these three countries to recover and improve, especially in health. This kind of news always makes me feel that if only people helped the people in this way, the world would make much more progress in the future.

Other Resources:

World on the verge of an effective Ebola vaccine - July 31, 2015

Ebola vaccine works, offering 100% protection in African trial - July 31, 2015

(This article has a rather misleading title, but admits to vaccine needing further trials at this time)

Ebola vaccines, therapies, and diagnostics - October 6, 2015

Citations

"World on the Verge of an Effective Ebola Vaccine." WHO. N.p., 31 July 2015. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.

Enserik, Martin. "Ebola Vaccine Works, Offering 100% Protection in African Trial." Science. N.p., 31 July 2015. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.

"Ebola Vaccines, Therapies, and Diagnostics." World Health Organization. N.p., 6 Oct. 2015. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.

Pearson, Carol. "West Africa Ends 2015 Declared Ebola-free." VOA. N.p., 30 Dec. 2015. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.

"Vaccines." WHO. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.

Artificial Skin - Ana

I've been reading many articles lately and found two that especially caught my eye. Both of the articles are regarding improving prosthetic's to give amputees a more accurate and life like sense of touch. Now researches believe that in the not very distant future, using a two-ply of flexible, thin plastic they will be able to enhance prosthetic limbs so that they could feel the sensation of touch, as if it were the real thing (see figure 1).

Multiple research teams have long worked on restoring touch to people with prosthetic limbs. So far the researchers at Stanford University were able to send signals to the brain tissue of mice, which closely mimicked the nerve messages of touch sensors in human skin, by creating electronic sensors. Another breakthrough happen two years ago, when researchers at Case Western Reaserch University in Cleveland, Ohio, gave people with prosthetic hands a sense of touch  by wiring by wiring pressure sensors on the hands to perpheral nerves in their arms. Although, a rudimentary sense of touch has been restored with those previous advancements, the sensors and signals used are very different to the ones being used now, the ones sent by mechanoreceptors which are the natural touch sensors in the skin. That difference being, that when mechanoreceptors sense pressure, they send a stream of nerve impulses; the more pressure, the higher the frequency of those pulses is (see figure 2). However, the previous tactile sensors have been analogue devices, meaning that with them more pressure produces a stronger electric signal, alternatively to a more frequent steam of pulses.

Zhenan Bao, a professor at Stanford University, made it clear that "having the ability to build a synthetic skin that can mimic the function of touch" will have many upsides among the being "the ability to not only restore the sense of touch medically but also enable tremendous opportunities to inspire new electronic material development, new forms of electronics" them ranging from automobiles, to wearable electronics. However, while reading these articles I couldn't help thinking that there was something more this research could possibly lead to. Which includes the group of people affected by this development; and whether that group was only limited to amputees. So, I started thinking if third degree burn victims would also be able to benefit from this, if they could be able to also feel in their burned area(s) again; seeing as they have no feeling in those area(s) anymore, because of the damage done to their nerve endings.

Figure 1:   

A photograph of the skin with flexible artificial mechanoreceptor insets.
Credit: Bao Research Group, Stanford University

Figure 2:

    A video of  Zhenan Bao talking about Artificial Mechanoreceptors

   for intuitive touch

              Credit: Bao Research Group, Stanford University

Word Count without citations: 450

Works Cited:

• "Prosthetic Limbs Could Have Artificial Skin That Really Feels." Popular Science. N.p., 20 Oct. 2015. Web. 14 Jan. 2016. <http://www.popsci.com/better-artificial-skin-for-mind-operated-prosthetics>.
• Newbern, By Elizabeth. "Artificial Skin Could Give People with Prosthetics a Sense of Touch." LiveScience. TechMedia Network, 06 Nov. 2015. Web. 14 Jan. 2016. <http://www.livescience.com/52693-artificial-skin-creates-sensation.html>.
• "Sensors May Soon Give Prosthetics a Lifelike Sense of Touch." Science. N.p., 15 Oct. 2015. Web. 17 Jan. 2016. <http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/10/sensors-may-soon-give-prosthetics-lifelike-sense-touch>.
• "Burns." Johns Hopkins Medicine. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Jan. 2016. <http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/dermatology/burns_85,P01146/>.

Should human gene editing be stopped?

Should Human Gene Editing be Stopped?

Should Human Gene Editing be Stopped? International summit on Human Gene Editing- 1st of Dec. - 3rd of Dec. 


In 2015 a discovery was made called "Electroporation". Electroporation creates a electrical field, which practically makes small holes in membranes to allow CRISPR to deliver to cell interiors. CRISPR is part of a normal bacterial process, it is a man made bactaria that can be used for gene driving (CRSIPR cuts the target cell, the cell repairs the damage by replacing the original cell with an altered version). CRISPR has been in a wide range of organisms, generally food or animals, for example bakers yeast, mosquitoes, fruit flies. In October according to sciencenews.org, there was a record of the most genes edited at once, they edited 62 genes that removed viruses that were in the pig DNA to make pig organs safer for human transplant. The Chinese also in October edited dog genes using CRISPR that resulted in the dog having more muscular thighs. There has also been plans on hatching mosquitoes incapable of carrying malaria!

CRISPR is being used because it is a cheap, fast and simper to use then previous methods of gene editing, it first became known in 2012. In 2015 with the new discovery of “Electroporation", they can easily edit human genes as well. Some say that this is good because they could with this method develop a cure for muscular dystrophy, sickle –cell disease and cancer, just to name a few. In China they announced that they recently attempted to use the system to edit human embryos that were nonviable (meaning thought not possible to edit), this experiment was partially successful. When this was announced many people who work in this field called for a temporary prohibition of editing human germline. In early December an international summit organized by the U.S. National Academies of Sciences and Medicine, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the United Kingdom’s Royal Society, debated whether it is ethical to edit human genes. U.S. Rep. Bill Foster said; “We’re on the verge of a technological breakthrough that could change the future of mankind, and we should not blindly charge ahead.” 

Bibliography- 
"Year in Review: Breakthrough Gene Editor Sparks Ethics Debate." Science News. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Jan. 2016. 
"Scientists Debate Ethics of Human Gene Editing at International Summit."The Guardian. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Jan. 2016. 
"Genome Editing." Genome Editing. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Jan. 2016. "Event Review: International Summit on Gene Editing." Humanity Media. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.

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Meeting the Martians?

In 2015, NASA confirmed that water is present on today's Mars. Scientists have discovered a phenomenon called the 'recurring slope lineae' which are dark streaks seen on the surface of Mars (see fg. 1)

Figure 1. The dark streaks on the left are the 'recurring slope lineae' which flow downhill and are believed to have been formed by seasonally flowing water.

These streaks appear in the warmer seasons as they seem to flow down the slopes of the Red Planet, and disappear in colder seasons. Seen on various locations on Mars, the streaks would appear when the temperature was above -23 degrees Celsius. 'Recurring slope lineae' are often viewed as being related to water. Hydrated salts have been found on the slopes of Mars, and scientists believe that they (along with liquid water) play a vital role in the formation of these streaks. The water on Mars contains more salt than water on Earth. Just as salt on roads on Earth is used to speed up the process of melting ice and snow,  the hydrated salts on Mars would lower the point on which the water would freeze. Scientists say that the flow is most likely a shallow one, with just enough water on the surface to form the dark streaks (see fg. 2)

Figure 2. 'Recurring slope lineae' found on the Garni crater on Mars

 "We found the hydrated salts only when the seasonal features were widest, which suggests that either the dark streaks themselves or a process that forms them is the source of the hydration." said Lujendra Ojha of the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech). Observations from the CRISM (Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars) showed the existence of hydrated salts on many places were the lineae were located, but only when the dark streaks were wide enough. The scientists also looked at the same 'recurring slope lineae' locations when the streaks weren't as wide, and they found no hydrated salts.
One of the main reasons as to why scientists (along with the rest of the world) are exited about the discovery of water on the Red Planet is because the existence of water could bring us closer to the discovery of life on Mars. Probably not life as in the aliens that we expected to meet, but something similar to a microbe. We know based on what happens on Earth, life tends to exist wherever there is water. That is why NASA is sending its next rover in 2020 to look for evidence of past, and potential future life on Mars.

Word count without citations: 433

References:
Redd, Nola Taylor. "Water on Mars: Exploration & Evidence." Space.com. N.p., 07 Oct. 2015. Web. 13 Jan. 2016.
Wilhelm, Mary Beth. "NASA Confirms Evidence That Liquid Water Flows on Today’s Mars." NASA. NASA, 28 Sept. 2015. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.